8 Communication Models: Diagrams & Workplace Examples

Over the past century, people have become more interested in uncovering patterns in the ways we communicate.

Even before there were communication theorists and communication models, philosophers and public speakers were trying to find what makes our communication processes so unique.

These perspectives eventually came to be known as communication models, which can be used to visualize the process of exchanging messages.

And now, we get to talk about how these different models of communication show up in everyday workplace communication.

So let’s dive in!

What are communication models?

Models of communication help us form a visual representation of different aspects of the communication situations we encounter.

Or, as Denis McQuail’s “Mass Communication Theory” put it: 

“A model is a selective representation in verbal or diagrammatic form of some aspect of the dynamic process of mass communication.”

Of course, not all of the frameworks we’ll be discussing can be used to represent mass communication situations.

Some models are more detailed than others, but even the most elaborate ones cannot perfectly represent what goes on in a communication encounter.

Since communication is a complex process, it’s often challenging to determine where a conversation begins and ends.

That is where models of communication come in — to simplify the process of understanding communication.

In a professional capacity, learning more about communication models can help us:

• Think about our communication situations more deliberately.
• Learn from our previous experiences.
• Better prepare for future communication situations. 

And, since effective organizational communication is crucial to the success of any business, we might as well start this article with a brief overview of the communication process.

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The communication process in 5 steps

The communication process is the very thing communication models were designed to describe.

With that in mind, let’s take a moment to walk through the most basic elements of this process.

Communication usually consists of 5 steps:

1. Idea formation (coming up with what you want to communicate)
2. Message encoding (considering the actual wording of the message)
3. Choosing the right channel for the transmission of the message
4. Message decoding or interpretation (the recipient gets the message and understands its meaning)
5. Sharing feedback (helping the sender determine whether the message was properly received)

Though these are the very basic steps of the communication process, different communication models have highlighted different aspects of the process.

To get a clearer picture of what lies ahead, let’s briefly go over the 8 communication models we’ll be discussing in this article.

8 major communication models at a glance

There are 3 basic types of communication models:

1. Linear models of communication, which look at one-way communication
2. Interactive models of communication, which analyze two-way communication
3. Transactional models of communication, which illustrate two-way communication where the message gets more complex as the communication event progresses

See the table below for a quick breakdown of all 8 models, their categories and distinguishing features.

Now that we’ve seen a basic overview of the communication models we’ll be discussing, let’s take a closer look at the first category.

Linear models of communication 

A linear model of communication is one that represents communication as a one-way line, wherein a sender:

• Encodes a message
• Chooses a receiver
• Sends the message through a channel

Some linear models of communication also mention noise as an additional element that plays a part in the communication process by distracting from the original message.

The communication model diagram below illustrates the different elements of the linear model of communication.

The linear communication model is straightforward and used mainly in marketing, sales, and PR, in communication with customers.

A marketing campaign devised by a company would be an apt linear communication model example because it’s meant to be a one-way communication process.

Yet, linear communication can also be used for internal workplace communication, as a part of a company’s internal announcement protocols.

For example, when an HR team announces an internal job posting or an upcoming team building event, they are using a linear communication model.

Having said that, let’s take a closer look at the most prominent linear models of communication.

#1: Aristotle’s model of communication 

Dating back to 300 BC, Aristotle’s model of communication is a linear model that offers a framework for persuasive public speaking.

This model illustrates how the sender (public speaker, professor, etc.) passes on their message to the passive audience or receiver.

This makes Aristotle’s communication model a foolproof way to excel in public speaking, seminars, and lectures.

The main elements of Aristotle’s communication model include:

1. Ethos or the credibility of the speaker, which is established through their expertise
2. Pathos or the emotional connection the speaker creates with the audience by inciting various emotions (anger, sadness, happiness, etc.)
3. Logos or logic, which is a required element of this kind of public speaking process

As the communication model diagram below shows, Aristotle’s model also highlights the 5 components of different communication situations, which include the:

• Speaker
• Speech
• Occasion
• Target audience
• Effect

Aristotle’s communication model example 

The Aristotle model of communication can be used to represent many different kinds of business communication, including:

• Executive update messages
• All-hands announcements
• Client pitch meetings

However, since persuasion is one of the main goals of this model of communication, perhaps it would be best illustrated by the last communication situation on that list.

For example, if a company is trying to get a new client on board, the company’s sales representative would have the role of the speaker.

The client representative present would be the target audience or recipient of the message.

The occasion for the communication would be the pitch meeting itself, which provides a unique opportunity for the exchange of this type of persuasive communication.

The desired effect of the speech would be to sign a contract or make a sale with the client in question.

Remember, though feedback can be shared in this case, it doesn’t really factor into Aristotle’s communication model because it is a one-way linear communication framework.

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#2: Lasswell’s model of communication 

Lasswell’s model of communication is a linear framework created in 1948 as a way of illustrating the process of mass communication.

In the words of US communication theorist Harold D. Lasswell, the theorists’ task is to answer the question:

“Who says what to whom with what effect?”

So, this model aims to answer the 5 following questions: 

1. Who created the message? 
2. What did they say?
3. What channel did they use (TV, radio, blog)?
4. To whom did they say it?
5. What effect did it have on the receiver?

The answers to these questions provide the main components of this model:

• Communicator
• Message
• Medium
• Audience/Receiver
• Effect

Lasswell’s communication model example

Lasswell’s framework is one of the models of mass communication that can be used in internal and external business communication.

As an example of this model, let’s see how the Lasswell model of communication might be used for an internal policy rollout.

To communicate policy changes, an HR worker would have the role of the speaker and their message would have to communicate recent policy changes.

The reach all company employees, they would need to choose an appropriate medium like:

• A company-wide email
• An all-hands meeting
• An announcement on the #general channel of a team communication app like Pumble by CAKE.com

In any case, the intended audience is the entire company, or all employees of the company, and the desired effect is to inform everyone of the upcoming changes in the company policy.

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#3: The Shannon-Weaver model of communication 

The Shannon-Weaver communication model is a communication framework proposed in 1948 by mathematicians Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver as they were studying the way electronic signals travel from sender to receiver.

Both the Lasswell and Shannon-Weaver frameworks are models of mass communication.

However, unlike the Lasswell model, which primarily focuses on achieving the desired effect of communication, the Shannon-Weaver model focuses mainly on finding the most effective communication channels.

This model breaks down linear communication into 5 key components, namely:

• Sender
• Encoder
• Channel
• Decoder
• Receiver

Shannon and Weaver were also the first to introduce the role of noise in the communication process, which John Fiske’s “Introduction to Communication Studies” defines as: 

“Anything that is added to the signal between its transmission and reception that is not intended by the source.”  

So, the noise is anything that makes the transmission less effective, resulting in misunderstandings or miscommunication.  

The Shannon-Weaver communication model example

Paula, a VP of marketing in a multinational company, is briefing Julian on new marketing strategies they are about to introduce next month. 

She wants a detailed study of the competitor’s activity by the end of the week. 

Unfortunately, while she was speaking, her assistant Peter interrupted her, and she forgot to tell Julian about the most important issue. 

At the end of the week, Julian did finish the report, but there were some mistakes, which had to be corrected later on. 

In this example, Paula is the sender and her message is encoded as she is speaking.

Speech is the channel or medium that carries her message. Julian acts as the receiver of the message, and his ears and brains are there to decode it.

As for Peter? Well, he’s the noise.

The issue in this process was the lack of feedback. Had Julian asked Paula for clarification after Peter interrupted her, the whole communication process would have been more effective, and there would have been no mistakes.

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Updated version of the Shannon-Weaver communication model 

Ultimately, the Shannon-Weaver communication model is a representation of linear communication primarily designed to deal with radio transmission.

As such, it failed to take into account the concept of feedback, which is the transfer of the receiver’s reaction back to the sender.

This transfer allows the speaker to modify their performance according to the reaction of the audience.

Inspired by the studies of Norbert Wiener, the so-called father of cybernetics, the updated version of this model expands the framework to reflect this reality of human communication.

In other words, it makes the receiver of the message a more active participant of the communication process.

#4: Berlo’s S-M-C-R model of communication 

Berlo’s model of communication is a linear model of communication proposed by David Berlo in his 1960 book “The Process of Communication”.

The model suggests that the process of communication has 4 basic components, which include the:

1. Source
2. Message
3. Channel
4. Receiver

Going forward, we’ll take a closer look at each of Berlo’s proposed steps, starting with the source.

#1: The source

During the communication process, the source or the sender is the main communicator looking to put their thoughts into words.

To achieve effective communication, they need to have: 

• Communication skills to ensure the communication will be effective
• The right attitude to make a lasting impression on the receiver(s)
• Knowledge of what they want to communicate
• Familiarity with the social system in which the communication process is taking place 
• Familiarity with the cultural backgrounds of their interlocutors, which is especially important for cross-cultural communication

#2: The message

The speaker creates the message when they transform their thoughts into words.

This part of Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model is made up of the following components:

• Content, which is the main point the speaker is trying to convey
• Elements, which is anything outside of the message that clarifies its meaning, like the speaker’s gestures, body language, facial expressions, etc. 
• Treatment, or the manner in which the message is conveyed
• Structure, or the way the message is arranged
• Code, which is everything that shapes the message, from culture to language and even nonverbal gestures

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#3: The channel 

Once the source is ready to transmit their message, they need to choose the appropriate channel for it.

Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model identifies all our senses as the channels that help us communicate with one another. That means the channel can be our:

• Hearing
• Sight
• Smell
• Taste
• Touch

All of these senses can play a role in communication, especially during in-person exchanges.

#4: The receiver

Last but not least, we have the person the message is aimed at, otherwise known as the receiver.

To understand the message, the receiver should have similar communication skills and attitudes as the speaker, as well as a familiarity with the broader context, culture, and social systems in which they communicate.

Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model example 

Watching the news on television is the perfect example of Berlo’s S-M-C-R Model of communication.

In this case, the news presenter is the source of the news and they convey the message to the audience. 

The news is the message, and the audience are the receivers of the message, communicated through audio and visual channels.

Now, having become acquainted with linear models of communication, let’s move on to something a little more complex and dynamic — interactive models of communication.

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Interactive models of communication 

Interactive or interactional communication models are more dynamic frameworks aimed at helping us understand two-way communication processes.

These models are often used for illustrating mediated and internet-based communication such as telephone conversations, letters, etc.

The main elements of interactional models of communication are:

• Sender
• Message
• Receiver
• Feedback
• Field of experience

As you can see, interactive models also add an additional element into the communication process — the field of experience. 

This component represents a person’s culture, past experiences, and personal history, factors that influence how the sender constructs a message, as well as how the receiver interprets it.

Having said that, let’s go over the most noteworthy interactive models of communication.

#5: The Osgood-Schramm model of communication

The Osgood-Schramm model is a circular model of communication, in which messages go in 2 directions between encoding and decoding.

As such, this model is useful for describing synchronous, interpersonal communication, but less suitable for cases with little or no feedback.

In their book “Communication Models for the Study of Mass Communications”, Denis Mcquail and Sven Windahl say that the emergence of this model “meant a clear break with the traditional linear/one-way picture of communication.”

To that end, the model rests on the following principles: 

1. Communication is circular. The parties involved in the process are both encoders and decoders.
2. Communication is equal and reciprocal. All parties are equally engaged in the process.
3. The message requires interpretation. Information needs to be properly interpreted to be understood.
4. Communication requires 3 distinct steps:
   1. Encoding
   2. Decoding
   3. Interpretation

The Osgood-Schramm communication model example

The Osgood-Schramm communication model can be used to describe any active conversation you might find yourself in.

In “Information Theory and Mass Communication”, Schramm notes: 

“It is misleading to think of the communication process as starting somewhere and ending somewhere. It is really endless. We are really switchboard centers handling and re-routing the great endless current of information.”

In the workplace, it can be used to show any circular exchange of information, from watercooler conversations to brainstorming sessions.

In any case, everyone involved would be speaking, listening, and interpreting each others’ messages at the same time. Those are the exact situations the Osgood-Schamm model was created for.

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#6: The Westley and Maclean model of communication

The Westley and Maclean model of communication suggests that the communication process does not start with the source/sender, but rather with environmental factors.

This model also takes into account the object of the orientation (i.e., the background, culture, and beliefs) of both the sender and the receiver of messages.

The Westley and Maclean model of communication consists of 9 crucial components: 

1. Environment (X)
2. Sensory experience (X¹)
3. Source/Sender (A)
4. The object of the orientation of the source (X²)
5. Receiver (B)
6. The object of the orientation of the receiver (X³)
7. Feedback (F)
8. Gatekeepers (C)
9. Opinion leaders

The Westley and Maclean communication model diagram below shows how these components show up during the communication process. 

The Westley and Maclean communication model example

Imagine that on your way to the office, you witness a road accident. 

This is the type of environmental stimulus that would nudge you to call your friends and tell them about what you had seen, or call your boss to say you are going to be a bit late. 

So, the communication process in this example does not start with you, but with the road accident you have witnessed. 

Acknowledgment of the environmental factors in communication, therefore, allows us to pay attention to the social and cultural contexts that influence our acts of communication.

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9 key elements of communication in the Westley and Maclean communication model

Now that we have an example of a communication scenario that could be illustrated by the Westley and Maclean framework, let’s break it down into the elements used by this model.

Transactional communication models

As the name suggests, transactional communication models view communication as a transaction, a cooperative process in which communicators (senders and receivers) co-create the process of communication, thereby influencing its outcome and effectiveness.

Transactional models show that we do not just exchange information during our interactions, but create relationships, form cross-cultural bonds, and shape opinions.

By analyzing these functions of communication, these frameworks also highlight the social, relational, and cultural contexts that influence interactions.

Additionally, transactional models acknowledge that there are barriers to effective communication — noise.

Of course, that’s not the only component of transactional communication models, as these include:

• Encoding
• Decoding
• Communicators
• The message
• The channel
• Noise

#7: Barnlund’s transactional model of communication

Barnlund’s model of communication recognizes that communication is a circular process and a multi-layered feedback system between the sender and the receiver.

The framework is perfect for analyzing interpersonal communication with immediate feedback coming from both senders and receivers.

According to this model, these roles are interchangeable and equally responsible for the effectiveness of the communication.

Barnlund’s transactional communication model diagram below illustrates the following main components of this communication model:

• Encoding
• Decoding
• Communicators
• The message (including the cues, environment, and noise)
• The channel

This model highlights the role of cues in the communication process, particularly: 

• Public cues (environmental cues)
• Private cues (communicator’s personal thoughts and background)
• Behavioral cues (person’s behavior, that can be verbal and nonverbal)

All these cues, as well as the environment and noise, are part of the message. Each communicator’s reaction depends on their background, experiences, attitudes, and beliefs. 

Barnlund’s transactional communication model example

Barnlund’s model of communication can be used to analyze:

• Face-to-face interactions
• Telephone conversations
• Chat sessions
• Meetings, etc.

For example, during a meeting or a video call, everyone is simultaneously sending and receiving messages even when they’re not speaking.

Their behavioral cues are always making their thoughts known to other meeting participants, thereby influencing the communication of anyone who sees them.

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#8: Dance’s Helical model of communication 

Dance’s Helical communication model views communication as a circular process that gets more and more complex as communication progresses. 

Each communication encounter is different from the previous one because communication never repeats itself. 

That is why it is represented by a helical spiral, as shown in the Dance’s Helical communication model diagram below.

In their book “Communication: Principles for a Lifetime”, Steven A. Beebe, Susan J. Beebe, and Diana K. Ivy state: 

“Interpersonal communication is irreversible. Like the spiral shown here, communication never loops back on itself. Once it begins, it expands infinitely as the communication partners contribute their thoughts and experiences to the exchange.”

According to this communication model, in the communication process, the feedback we get from the other party involved influences our next statement, and we become more knowledgeable with every new cycle.

Dance’s Helical communication model example 

Dance himself explained his model with the example of a person learning throughout their life.

Namely, a person starts to communicate with their surroundings very early on, using rudimentary methods of communication. For instance, as babies, we cry to get our mothers’ attention. Later on, we learn to speak in words, and then in full sentences. During the whole process, we build on what we know to improve our communication.

Naturally, the process continues in the workplace, with every interaction with managers or coworkers building upon previous ones to give us a greater understanding of our environment.

Every communication act is, therefore, a chance for us to learn how to communicate more effectively in the future, and feedback helps us achieve more effective communication. 

In a way, our whole life is one communicational journey toward the top of Dance’s helix.

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How to choose the right communication model

At this point, you might be wondering which of the communication models we’ve discussed would best suit an upcoming communication scenario you’ll be dealing with.

If you’re looking for the most effective model of communication to base your communication plan on, all you need to do is answer the following questions:

• What is the goal of your communication?
• What is the size of your audience?
• Does your message require feedback from the receiver?

Once you have the answer to these questions, you should be able to select the most appropriate communication model and channel for the situation.

Here’s an example of what that thought process might look like.

Basically, you can use linear models for communicating messages that don’t require feedback, which is usually done in marketing, sales, and PR.

Interactional and transactional models are better for internal communication, which requires more back and forth exchanges and feedback.

Then again, if you’re only looking to share some information with your employees, linear models would do the trick.

Frequently asked questions about models of communication

Still got questions? Here are some quickfire answers.

What are the 4 models of communication?

The 4 basic models of communication include the linear frameworks we’ve discussed, namely:

1. Aristotle’s model
2. The Shannon-Weaver model
3. The Osgood-Schramm model
4. Berlo’s S-M-C-R model

What are the 5 means of communication?

 The 5 main types of communication include:

1. Verbal communication
2. Nonverbal communication
3. Written communication
4. Visual communication
5. Active listening

Though listening isn’t a way of transmitting information, it still plays a crucial role in the process of effective communication.

How many types of models are there in communication?

The 3 types of communication models include:

1. Linear models used in one-way communication
2. Interactive or interactional models typically used for mediated or internet-based exchanges
3. Transactional models used to describe more complex interactions

What is the most basic model of communication?

Aristotle’s communication model is the most basic one you can use, as it represents the simplest form of communication without taking into account audience reactions or feedback.

What are the 5 elements of the basic communication model?

The 5 basic components of most communication models include:

1. The sender or source (the person who encodes the message)
2. The message itself
3. The medium or channel through which the message is transmitted
4. The receiver or audience (the people who decode the message)
5. Feedback (which helps the sender adjust their message if it was misinterpreted)

Implementing communication models with Pumble by CAKE.com

Having a dedicated digital HQ like Pumble by CAKE.com can help you find the right channel for all of your professional conversations.

Depending on the purpose of your communication and the audience you’re trying to reach, you can use:

• Private or public channels to notify multiple people at once while minimizing the chance for misinterpretation
• Video conferencing to give others a chance to speak, which is especially useful for collaborating and brainstorming
• Polls to quickly and efficiently gather feedback from a large group of recipients

In addition to these, Pumble has plenty of other features that make it a great team communication solution.

So, after analyzing your team’s communication efforts through the most appropriate model, picking the preferred communication method will be an intuitive and rewarding process.

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